The Question of Pashtun Identity and Afghanistan -Pakistan Relations

Analysis

By Nalin Kumar Mohapatra

Pashtun identity is not only a question of ethnic identity; over the years, it has shaped the nature of bilateral relations between Afghanistan and Pakistan.  Because of a constructed border in the form of the 1893 Durand Line (which has no legal relevance in the post-1947 era), Pakistan is illegally occupying the homeland of Pashtuns.  Lasting solution to the question of Pashtun lies in returning the Pashtun lands to Afghanistan.  If this core question between Afghanistan and Pakistan is not addressed early, it will have broader geopolitical ramifications, including affecting connectivity projects linking Central Asia with South Asia via Afghanistan.

 Introduction

 The onset of   War between Afghanistan under the leadership of the Taliban and Pakistan in recent months demonstrates that the relationship between the two countries is not well and there exists much uncertainty. This is especially so given that the Doha negotiations, as well as efforts by external powers to mend fences between the two countries, have failed.  As reports emanating from Afghanistan suggest, there is a surge of a humanitarian crisis because of the free flow of trade.  At the same time, loss of human lives has also been reported from both sides due to the outbreak of war between Afghanistan and Pakistan.  Along with the land war, as reported, Pakistan’s air force repeatedly violated Afghanistan’s airspace. Some of these developments also have broader implications for the regional security of Central and South Asia. Simultaneously, another important question that needs to be highlighted here is the bone of contention, which is accentuating the rivalry between Taliban led Afghanistan and Pakistan. It is a known fact that it is Islamabad which has groomed the Taliban over the years, which is ruling Afghanistan at present. Some of these issues need to be considered to understand the current Afghanistan-Pakistan war.

 Historical Roots of the Pashtun Question and Afghanistan and Pakistan Relations

It is essential to note that the rivalry between Afghanistan and Pakistan is not a new phenomenon; it dates to the post-1947 period, particularly after Pakistan's independence. It is worth noting that at the UN General Assembly's 92nd plenary meeting on 30 September 1947, the Afghan Representative, Hosayan Aziz, opposed the creation of Pakistan.  Aziz stated in the UN Deliberation that “it is with the deepest regret that we are unable at this time to vote for Pakistan. This unhappy circumstance is because we cannot recognise the North-West Frontier as part of Pakistan”. The point Aziz raised at the UN is quite significant in recent years, as successive Afghan governments have not recognised the Durand Line as the border between the two countries. In fact, the Durand Line Agreement, which was signed way back in 1893, has no relevance after 1947, as part of the agreement has ceased to be effective.  In 1949, the Afghan parliament also adopted a stance similar to Aziz's, and bringing Pastunistan back into Afghanistan's territory was one of the main planks of Afghanistan's political parties over the years, according to studies.  It may be recalled that in the 1950s, the people of Pastunistan declared an independent “Central Pashtunistan Government” in the present Pakistan-occupied Pashtunistan region. In the subsequent years, attempts were made by the subsequent Afghanistan governments to storm into the other side of the Durand Line under the illegal occupation of Pakistan.  The people of Afghanistan used to attach great symbolism and nostalgia to the other side of their historic land. They want to closely associate with the Pashtun region and its people.  Thus, it is not merely a question of land, but also a deep symbolic attachment that the people of Afghanistan have developed over the years.  It can be stated that due to the unresolved border issues, more particularly over the Durand Line, the relations between Afghanistan and Pakistan remained hostile.

 Afghanistan-Pakistan relations underwent a significant shift in the aftermath of the 1979 era. The Soviet intervention in Afghanistan, as well as the United States’s efforts to counter the Soviets, propelled new geopolitics in and around the Durand Line. The nationalist struggle in the border areas of the Durand Line under Pakistan-occupied Pashtunistan took a back seat with the accession to power by Zia-Ul Haq, along with the Soviet intervention in Afghanistan.  The Soviet intervention in Afghanistan changed not only the geopolitical landscape but also the internal political situation of Afghanistan. Taking advantage of the volatility in   Afghanistan, the Pakistan regime led by   Zia ul Haq provided both overt and covert support to radical elements, including the Mujahedin. This, in fact, contributed to the fruition of radical Islamist groups in Afghanistan.  The US Administration also achieved its own Cold War objective of containing its strategic foe, the Soviet Union, and provided the necessary support to both Pakistan’s military regime and the Mujahedin. As studies suggest, Washington also provided both financial and armed assistance to these Mujahedin groups of Afghanistan. In this strategic scenario, Pakistan emerged as the frontline ally of the US in the 1980s. Thus, the evolving strategic scenario of the 1980s contributed to the rise of radical Islamist forces in Afghanistan, aided and abetted by both the US and Pakistan.  In this context, the nationalist movement of Pashtuns, as studies suggest (particularly writings of Barnett R. Rubin, an authoritative voice on the issue), took a backseat and contributed to the rise of radical Islam on both sides of the Durand line.

   The Post-1991 Phase and the Question of Pashtunistan

 In the post-1991 period, a new geopolitical landscape emerged.  Russia became the successor state to the Soviet Union and, in the initial years, showed little interest in Afghanistan's domestic politics. At the same time, the ouster of the Najibullah government and the rise to power of the erstwhile Mujahedin altered Afghanistan's domestic political structure. Soon after, the Taliban came to power with the support of Pakistan and the US. Thus, domestic political developments in Afghanistan, along with regional geopolitics, particularly the role of Pakistan, played a key role in shaping the issue of Pashtunistan. The same can be inferred from the fact that Pakistan's political elites always tried to control the political process of Afghanistan, keeping in mind the Pashtun issue in mind.  Islamabad crushed the nationalistic movement of Afghanistan, which underlined the need for bringing back the Pashtun land from Pakistan and merging with the present-day Afghanistan.

 The emergence of the Taliban in the 1990s in Afghanistan, though, enhanced the dominance of Pashtuns in Afghan politics. However, the Pashtuns are still longing to forge contact with their original homeland. However, the Pakistani authorities used force to quell the movement of Pashtuns. Even the Taliban then could not muster enough courage to protect their own Pashtun brothers in Pakistan. This is because the Taliban then was heavily dependent on Pakistan.

 The 9/11 incident, as well as the ouster of the Taliban from power in Afghanistan, has also completely altered the geopolitical scenario of this part of the world. In Afghanistan's domestic politics, the ascendance of Hamid Karzai has once again reaffirmed the dominance of Pashtuns. At the same time, he was quite vociferous about the Durand question. He even criticised the US's support for Pakistan regarding the Durand Line and called for its immediate removal.  In fact, in 2017 Karzai underlined that “ The Govt of Pakistan has no legal authority to dictate terms on the Durand line while we wish freedom for the people of FATA from FCR and other repressive measures, we remind the Govt of Pakistan that Afghanistan hasn’t and will not recognize the Durand line”. The above position of Karzai demonstrates the unwavering support of the Afghan Pashtun leadership to the cause of the Pashtuns under the forced occupation of Pakistan.

Persecution of Pashtuns in Pakistan

 In this context, it is also necessary to highlight the persecution of Pashtuns at various fronts.  A study published by the London School of Economics (LSE) titled “Reimagining the Pashtuns’ Cultural Identity in Pakistan” highlights the systemic persecution of the Pashtuns by Pakistan in all spheres of socio-political and economic realms. The regular victimization of Pashtuns and the stereotypical treatments put them in a difficult condition.  Even as the above study highlights that the Pashtuns in Pakistan are subjected to racial discrimination. This is for a community which for years, has been known for its valour and is being treated as a “suspected community” in Pakistan, as various studies suggest.   It is in this context that there is a greater degree of feeling of alienation and subjugation among the Pashtun community. Because of state repression on the Pashtun authority, slowly this community is losing its social identity. This is despite the fact that the federal government of Pakistan is exploiting the mineral resources. The Pashtun region of Pakistan is suffering a lot in terms of poverty and economic underdevelopment at the hands of the federal government of Pakistan. According to a 2024 study by the Asian Development Bank, approximately 49 per cent of the population in this part of Pakistan lives below the poverty line, despite this region contributing substantially to the national exchequer.  Similarly, the study of the World Bank published in 2019 titled “Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Irrigated Agriculture Improvement Project” highlights the richness of agricultural practices in this part of the world. In fact, this part of Pakistan produces numerous agricultural products that it exports to the international market. Along with a major agricultural producing region, the richness of agricultural production in this region is rooted in the flow of major rivers, including the Kabul River, which flows into Afghanistan.   This makes the region quite fertile.

 The above description offers a thorough understanding of the importance of this part of the Pashtun landmass under Pakistan's illegal occupation over the years, in the name of the Durand Line, which has lost its relevance after the post-1947 era. Although the southern part of Afghanistan is generally more fertile than the northern part, major areas in the south are barren and heavily dependent on the monsoon for agriculture. In this context, the significance of the Pashtun region of Pakistan, with its extensive irrigation facilities, becomes evident for Afghanistan’s economic development if it is reunited with its original geopolitical space.

 Thus, for Afghanistan, the Pashtun question is not only a symbolic and emotive issue but also closely tied to its sustainable security.  The same can be identified in terms of mitigating poverty in Afghanistan by bringing the fertile region of Pashtunistan under the occupation of Pakistan. This, in the long term, will substantially address the food crisis that Afghanistan is currently grappling with.

 In this context, it is worth noting that the Durand Line, as it currently exists, lacks legal validity. Thus, taking advantage of the political instability of Afghanistan over the years, Pakistan is illegally occupying what is known as   Pakhtunistan or the North West Frontier Province. The political instability in the Federally Administered Tribal Areas has further provided an opportunity to Pakistan, as discussed above, to prolong its illegal occupation of the Pashtun region In an effort to marginalize the Pashtun identity in Pakistan, the government has undertaken a number of administrative measures. Notably, in 2010, it renamed the North West Frontier Province (NWFP), which is predominantly inhabited by Pashtuns, to Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. Furthermore, in 2018, both the Federally Administered Tribal Areas (FATA) and the Provincially Administered Tribal Areas (PATA) were incorporated into the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa region, reflecting a significant shift in administrative structure. This gave the federal government further authority to bring the Pashtun region under its sphere of influence, thus decimating the Pashtun identity. This administrative move on the part of successive Pakistani governments pushed the Pashtuns into a corner.

  Geopolitical Development and the Question of Pashtun Identity

 The recent move on the part of the Taliban to recapture its Pashtun region can be seen in the context of three major developments that have occurred recently. These are:

 Gradually Taliban is able to win the trust of the Afghan people by providing a stable government after a long period of political anarchy. The strengthening of political processes has helped the Taliban to seek the merger of the Pashtun-dominated region under the illegal occupation of Pakistan.

The external players, particularly the United States, always stood with Pakistan on the question of Pashtunistan. This is despite the fact that a massive violation of human rights is occurring in Afghanistan.   However, after the moveout of the US from Afghanistan, the Taliban is taking a free hand in deciding the fate of its Pashtun region, currently in Pakistan.  Similarly, the Iran crisis will also affect the geopolitics of the Pashtun region. This is because, to encircle Iran, the US may be able to achieve greater engagement with both Pakistan and Afghanistan. In this context, a flare-up of the Pashtun question will further contribute to geopolitical polarisation in the Afghanistan-Pakistan border region.  

   The atrocities being committed by the Pakistan establishment on the Pashtuns are now reaching the global community, including the UN.  This will help the Pashtun community carry out the movement to protect Pashtuns' human rights and identity.

  The recent move on the part of the Taliban government to bring the Pashtun region under the illegal occupation of Pakistan under its sphere of influence resulted in a series of wars between Afghanistan and Pakistan in recent years.  What is surprising to note here is that the Taliban regime, after realizing the evil intention of Pakistan in the post-2020 era, tried to dissociate itself from its former mentor, Pakistan.  One may add here that the Taliban in the post-2020 era asserted its dominance by bringing the whole of Afghanistan under its control. As a result, its functional sphere of activities expanded from maintaining law and order to providing the basic necessities to the Afghan masses. This actually propelled the Taliban to reconsider its relationship with   Pakistan. In this regard, the Taliban's core issue now is governance and political stability in Afghanistan. What is important to add here is that in order to justify its legitimate interest in Afghanistan and its people Taliban is making a move to get back its historical territories located in Pakistan.

Afghanistan-Pakistan War

  In this background, one can observe the strategic impasse between Pakistan and Afghanistan.    The repeated airstrikes conducted by Pakistan’s Air Force deep inside Afghanistan have resulted in the loss of innocent lives. Pakistan is trying to create a fear psychosis among the Taliban authority. Similarly, over the years, the attack on Pashtuns inside the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa region has escalated considerably. This results in the loss of innocent lives in Afghanistan.  Though the Pakistani authority is giving the logic that it is conducting a raid against suspected   Tehrik-e-Taliban Pakistan (TTP) networks operating from Afghan soil, the real reason is to frighten the Taliban authority to fall in line with   Pakistan’s whims. It needs to be underlined here that TTP is itself a product of Pakistan’s sinister design to destabilise Afghanistan.

One might add that, although negotiations between Afghanistan and Pakistan have begun, they are unlikely to produce any lasting solution. This is primarily due to Pakistan’s sinister aim to dominate Afghanistan’s political landscape. By controlling Afghanistan, Pakistan seeks to gain “strategic depth” in Central Asia and influence the pipeline and connectivity projects linking Central Asia to South Asia. It is also worth noting that the issue of Pashtuns will have broader geopolitical implications for regional security in both South and Central Asia. The ongoing conflict in this region could also potentially fuel the movement for the liberation of Balochistan movement. Reports suggest that there is a tacit alliance between the Pashtun and Baloch groups in Pakistan. This is despite the historical rivalry between these two communities in Pakistan. However, the persecution of Pakistani authorities over the years on both these groups provided a fertile soil for the growing alienation of both ethnic groups.

 Conclusion

 To sum up, the question of the Pashtuns located in Pakistan is going to be a major flashpoint in the bilateral relations between Afghanistan and Pakistan. The problem is going to accentuate further as the Taliban is controlling the political process of Afghanistan, and it is looking to get back its historical territories of Pashtuns located illegally on the other side of Pakistan under the Durand Line, which has no legal sanctity. Along with this, the oppression of   Pashtuns in Pakistan over the years has also propelled them to join with their historical homeland, i.e, with Afghanistan. It is in this context that the Taliban leadership should make consistent efforts to bring the Pashtun region in Pakistan into its fold.  This will give Afghanistan a cohesive identity.

Disclaimer: This paper is the author's individual scholastic contribution and does not necessarily reflect the organization's viewpoint.

Nalin Kumar Mohapatra is a  Professor at the Centre for Russia and Central Asian Studies, School of International Studies, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi.